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Why Does the World Need Tellurium
Rare Industrial – Metal – Tellurium
With just a quick glance at the technological and industrial developments in the world that are virtually taking over our lives – tablets, smartphones, and other indicators of modernity – you’ve probably surmised that a handful of important metals have made much of these advancements possible.
In fact, rare earth metals such as Gadolinium, Terbium and about 17 others are of increasing importance to the precise industries that are driving economic growth in the industrialized countries of the world. They are termed, for that reason, strategic elements – for two reasons, in fact: they are very important, and access to them is somewhat unstable (for various reasons; political, geographical, or other).
Tellurium: Not a Rare Earth Metal – But Rare
Tellurium isn’t specifically a rare earth metal; but it is a very rare metal that is proving essential important for future work in photovoltaics; with thermoelectrical applications. Because the abundance of tellurium is similar to that of gold, unless a particular country controls reserves, it may be difficult to come by in an industrial race centered on technology that is dependent on it. Furthermore, unlike other elements, tellurium can’t be produced inexpensively using technologies; whatever’s on earth is pretty much the quota. A few other uses:
- physical properties that make it excellent for fiber optic cables in telecommunication
- cadmium-telluride solar cells
- rubber with markedly-improved heat resistance
- thermoelectric and infrared instruments
Why Tellurium is Worth Investigating as an Asset
Although tellurium might be as scarce as the element gold, it is considerably cheaper – currently. This state is very important, because as high technology continues its unceasing march forward, and its products become subject to greater demand, you can expect the price to rise almost without bound. The solid state physics (think semiconductors, refrigeration, etc) of tellurium are truly unique, and are practically salivated over by physicists and material scientists for the considerable increases in efficiency it bestows devices made of it. This leads to less energy used for particular tasks, among other benefits.
Similarly to some of the more robust rare earth metals that are rising in importance, tellurium has a shot at reaching gold’s economic potential in some areas. Consider that the gold mined in the world today is used for jewelry, electronics, asset protection, etc.; tellurium probably won’t be attractive for use as jewelry – but the scarcity and importance may combine to make a very valuable metal indeed.
By far, though, the greatest demand for tellurium and reason for its growing worth would be the afore-mentioned technical uses. There are some things which today, simply can’t be done as effectively without employing tellurium alloys. Whosoever holds the key (or one of several keys, more likely) to amounts of this strategic rare earth metal “cousin”, stands to have their reserves much in demand. It finds use in the automotive industry and thermocouples as well, further adding to its growing worth.
An Investment Future
Ultimately, the landscape of asset protection strategies is shifting to the more long-term, assured instruments like the rare earth metals and tellurium. Their appeal and widespread necessity have fostered a niche for savvy investors to find an alternative means of making sure their wealth is secured; often in a steadily-growing (inevitably-growing, too) investment vehicle. Some figures put the presence of elements like tellurium at greater than 80% of all the electronics you see today; which is a figure that is sure to grow, given the rapid pace of development of those industries that depend on them. Their intimate dependence on supply and demand make them a great investment for a certain class of investor.
Tellurium
What do diphtheria, isotopes and garlic breath have in common?
- Metallic tellurium, diameter 3.5 cm. Image: anonymous (Creative Commons Attribution 1.0 Generic license.)
This week’s element is tellurium, which has the symbol Te and the atomic number, 52. Its name comes from the Latin, tellus, for “earth”. Despite its name, this lustrous, pale grey metalloid is quite rare on earth, rarer than it is elsewhere in the universe, in fact. The reason for its comparative rarity is attributed to the formation of H2Te, a volatile gas that was lost to space during the early formation of earth.
Tellurium is used in a number of industrial and commercial applications. It is alloyed with stainless steel and copper to improve their machinability and tellurium is used as a semiconductor, cadmium telluride is used in solar panels because it has the highest efficiency for electricity generation, tellurium speeds the curing of rubber and renders it less susceptible to aging and to the softening effects of oil, and tellurium oxide, TeO, is used in some rewritable CDs and DVDs.
When I was a microbiologist, one of the many types of growth media that I used to diagnose human pathogens was an agar made with serum and potassium tellurite (K2TeO3). This agar is used specifically to diagnose the human respiratory pathogen, Corynebacterium diphtheriae. Tellurite agar is a selective medium because tellurium inhibits growth of a variety of bacteria, and it is a differential medium because Corynebacterium will reduce tellurite to metallic tellurium, producing characteristic black or brownish-black colonies on the otherwise pale straw-coloured and transparent agar.
In humans and other animals, tellurium has no known biological role, but the body does metabolise it to create the volatile gaseous compound, dimethyl telluride, (CH3)2Te, which is excreted in sweat and exhaled, and is the source of a charmingly potent “garlic breath”, similar to what happens with selenium ingestion. (Which makes me wonder why don’t any of these elements make people smell minty or fruity? Why must we always smell like a litter box?) I should point out that taking vitamin C can reduce these odoriferous effects.
Tellurium can be toxic if ingested in high enough quantities. *
Chemically speaking, the discovery of tellurium caused the inventor of the periodic table of elements, Dmitri Mendeleev, a lot of headaches. This is because tellurium has an atomic mass of 127.6 whilst the element that comes after it, iodine, is lighter with an atomic weight of 126.9. Mendeleev concluded that the atomic mass for one of these two elements must be wrong because tellurium clearly preceded iodine in the periodic table. After 50 years of headbanging frustration and effort by a number of chemists to accurately determine the atomic mass of these two elements, the concept of chemical isotopes was discovered. Isotopes are variant forms of an element that maintain the element’s characteristic number of protons, but contain variable numbers of neutrons. As it turns out, the most common isotopes of tellurium have atomic masses of 128 and 130, whilst iodine’s most common isotope has an atomic mass of 127. Thus, tellurium has an average atomic mass of 127.6 whilst iodine has an average atomic mass of 126.9.
Here’s our favourite chemistry professor telling us more about tellurium:
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* [added 1430 on 2 March 2012] Tellurium is “[h]ighly toxic, may be fatal if inhaled, swallowed or absorbed through skin. Avoid any skin contact. Effects of contact or inhalation may be delayed.”. Sodium tellurite is also toxic: “The material is both an oral and dermal toxic hazard. The material is toxic by ingestion. Oral ingestion of tellurium compounds is generally regarded as extremely toxic. The probable oral lethal dose is 5-50 mg/kg or between 7 drops and 1 teaspoonful for a 70 kg (150 pound) person. Tellurium compounds are regarded as super toxic for skin exposures.”
Source: http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/grrlscientist/2012/mar/02/1
Rare Element on Earth Discovered in Ancient Starlight
A photo of an ultra pure tellurium crystal. Astronomers have discovered the material in deep space by analyzing light from three ancient stars. CREDIT: MIT
Light from three ancient stars at the edge of the Milky Way indicates that the stars contain tellurium, a brittle, superconducting element that is rare on Earth.
The cosmic discovery, which also spotted traces of other heavy elements, supports the theory that these elements were synthesized in the rapidly collapsing cores of rare supernovas (stellar explosions).
“You can make iron and nickel in any ordinary supernova, anywhere in the universe,” said Anna Frebel, an astrophysicist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and a member of the research team. “But these heavy elements seem to only be made in specialized supernovas.”
According to the theory, heavy atoms form during rapid nuclear fusion at the heart of some supernovas. Called r-process, it sets in when a supernova core collapses, bombarding atomic nuclei with a fierce onslaught of neutrons. The result is the production of atoms heavier than iron, which then get hurled into space, enriching the cloud of gas and dust that eventually collapses to form another star.
And if the theory is right, some of those atoms ought to end up in stars like those analyzed by Frebel and the rest of her team. [Supernova Photos from Star Explosions]
To analyze the chemical composition of the three stars at the Milky Way’s edge, the researchers studied data gathered by the Hubble Space Telescope’s spectrograph, an instrument that splits incoming starlight into a spectrum of wavelengths. If an element is present in a star, the atoms of that element absorb starlight at specific wavelengths, leaving telltale dips in signal in the spectrograph’s data.
The scientists detected dips in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum at a wavelength that matched tellurium’s light absorption, signifying the presence of the rare element in the 12-billion-year-old stars. Furthermore, the abundance of tellurium relative to that of other heavy elements, such as barium and strontium, was the same in all three stars. According to Frebel, the matching ratios support the theory that a rare type of supernova may have created the elements in the bottom half of the periodic table, including tellurium.
The finding helps flesh out one chapter in the cosmic history of the elements, an ongoing effort of astronomers and nuclear physicists to understand the formation of the 94 naturally occurring types of matter.
According to Jennifer Johnson, an associate professor of astronomy at Ohio State University who was not involved in the new research, tellurium has been a “tough” element to detect because it absorbs light in the ultraviolet spectrum. UV signals tend to be flooded by sunlight and are impossible for ground-based telescopes to spot.
“If you look at the periodic table, tellurium is right in the middle of these elements that are hard for us to measure,” Johnson said in a statement. “If we need to understand how [the r-process] works in the universe, we really have to measure this part of the periodic table. It’s really cool that they got this element in this sea of unknown-ness.”
Frebel and her colleagues are attempting to fill in other spots in the periodic table, too, by looking for signs of other heavy elements in starlight. “There are still quite a few holes,” she said. “Every now and then, we can add an element, and it adds another data point that makes our work easier.”
The researchers have published their findings online in Astrophysical Journal Letters.
This story was provided by SPACE.com, a sister site to LiveScience
Source: http://www.livescience.com/18614-rare-earth-element-tellurium-ancient-stars.html
Critical Metals Vital to Our Lives in Tight Supply
Rare Earth Elements
We begin 2012 similar to how we started 2011 when it comes to rare earth, rare technical metals and rare industrial metals. China has over 90% of production and refining. The US and EU governments are scrambling to legislate, source, produce, open and reopen mines. The West has decided to continue down the road of the idea that the markets will take care of the supply and price of these metals. What is alarming is how easily the West was lulled to sleep by China´s ability to supply the world its metals cheaply and efficiently. The West concentrated on making money trading stocks and futures that dealt with these commodities. China concentrated on building the most extensive mining industry in the history of man. Here in 2012 the Department of Energy in the USA has approved a spending bill that includes $20 Million to focus on the supply issues of these metals.
The metals I am speaking about are so vital to our everyday lives. These metals are found in your mobile phones, computers, LCD and LED TV´s, hybrid cars, solar power, wind power, nuclear power, efficient lighting and medical technologies. Here is a list of metals that have been deemed critical.
- Indium RIM (Solar, Mobile Phones, LCD)
- Tellurium RIM (Solar, Computers, Semi-conductors)
- Gallium RIM (Solar, Mobile Phones, LED´s, Fuel Cells)
- Hafnium RIM (Processors, Nuclear, Lighting, Plasma Cutting Tools)
- Tantalum RIM (Capacitors, Medical Implants, Mobile Phones, Nuclear)
- Tungsten RIM (Nuclear, Armaments, Aviation)
- Yttrium REE (Lighting, Medical Technology, Magnets in Hybrids)
- Neodymium REE (Magnets in Wind power, Super Magnets, Hybrid Vehicles)
- Dysprosium REE (Computers, Nuclear, Hybrid Vehicles)
- Europium REE (Lighting, LED´s, Lasers
- Lanthanum REE (Hybrid Vehicles, Magnets, Optics)
- Cerium REE (LED´s, Catalytic Converters, Magnets)
RIM=Rare Industrial Metal REE=Rare Earth Element
The supplies of these metals could hold back the production of green technologies. According to the latest report by the Department of Energy, ¨Supply challenges for five rare earth metals may affect clean energy technology deployment in the years ahead¨. If Green technology is to become main stream, the costs of these technologies have to reach cost parity with traditional energy sources. As long as there are serious supply issues with these metals the costs can´t reach these levels. The other option is finding alternatives like Graphene and Nanotechnologies.
The US and EU need supply chains of the metals that include both mining and refining of these metals. Relying on sovereign states for critical metals such as these, leave a nation vulnerable to outside influence in both politics and economics. Environmentalists have succeeded in influencing politicians to close mines throughout the West. Politicians have legislated the mining industry into the position it is in today. The Western nations must start now to build its supply chain or continue to be at the mercy of the BRIC (Brazil, Russia, India and China) nations for its metal needs.
The best the West can do now is provide, enough metals to meet its own demands. China has reached a point where it can now demand that certain industries produce their products there. If a company decides to try to produce the product in another country China will make producing that item cost prohibitive outside of China by raising the prices of the metals.
The demand for the products these metals are used to produce, are showing few signs of slowing down even in a so-called recession. Governments are subsidizing Green technology, people are buying mobile phones across the planet and everybody wants a nice flat screen TV. Will 2012 pass without countries truly taking this opportunity to fix the problem or will they step up and make the hard decisions which can put the countries back in control over their own destiny?
Electric cars to be hit by supply disruptions
The advancement of electric cars in the short-term could be affected by supply disruptions.
That’s the verdict of a new report from the US Department of Energy entitled 2011 Critical Materials Strategy, which looks at supply challenges for five rare earth metals – dysprosium, neodymium, europium, terbium and yttrium. These metals are used in magnets for wind turbines and electric vehicles or phosphors in energy efficient lighting. Meanwhile, other elements, including indium, lanthanum, cerium and tellurium, were found to be near critical.
According to the report, demand for almost all of the materials has grown more rapidly than demand for commodity metals such as steel – this has come from consumer products including mobile phones, computers and flat panel televisions, as well as clean energy technologies.
However, the report concludes that manufacturers of wind power and electric vehicle technologies are already looking into strategies to respond to potential shortages. It states that manufacturers are currently making decisions on future system designs, trading off performance benefits of elements such as neodymium and dysprosium against potential supply shortages.
As an example, wind turbine manufacturers are looking at gear-driven, hybrid and direct drive systems with varying levels of rare earth metal content while some electric vehicle manufacturers are pursuing rare earth free induction motors or using switched reluctance motors as an alternative to PM motors.
By: Paul Lucas
Source: http://www.thegreencarwebsite.co.uk/blog/index.php/2011/12/27/electric-cars-to-be-hit-by-supply-disruptions/
Supply Threats Persist For Thin-Film Solar Materials Due To Competition
Cadmium Telluride Thin-Film Modules
One year ago, a report from the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) on the global supply of essential PV module materials predicted possible disruptions for thin-film manufacturing.
The availability of indium, gallium and tellurium was examined in the context of current and future production needs, and the DOE found cause for concern. Indium and tellurium were pegged as especially vulnerable to supply tightness and price volatility, according to both the report and several market analysts at the time.
(See “New Government Report Identifies Supply Risks For Thin-Film PV Materials” in the February 2011 issue of Solar Industry.)
Now, the DOE has released the latest edition of its Critical Materials Strategy. Have the worries over thin-film PV materials supply eased? According to the DOE, the general supply-demand picture for indium, gallium and tellurium has “improved slightly,” but the situation is not entirely reassuring. The three metals are still highlighted (alongside neodymium and dysprosium) as clean-energy materials that face a “significant risk of supply chain bottlenecks in the next two decades.”
The report attributes the slight improvement primarily to decreased demand for the three thin-film materials: Although PV deployment is expected to grow, the requirements of the materials per module are expected to shrink.
For copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) modules, manufacturers are shifting to compositions with higher proportions of gallium and lower concentrations of indium, the DOE says. The result is a “partial trade-off in the potential for supply risk between the two elements.” At the same time, CIGS’ market share assumption has been reduced under the DOE’s new calculations, lowering projected demand for both indium and gallium.
Cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin-film modules currently account for approximately 10% of the PV market, according to the report. Declining silicon prices may threaten this slice of the market, but high tellurium costs and the increasing need for CdTe manufacturers to compete for supply with non-PV companies requiring tellurium continue to cause supply headaches.
“The cost of tellurium is a critical issue for CdTe solar cell makers, and the industry is working to lower material use and increasing recovery of new scrap to reduce reliance on primary tellurium,” the DOE says in the report.
Although short-term supply of tellurium appears adequate, future capacity increases may be insufficient to supply both CdTe manufacturing and the multitude of other manufacturing sectors that use tellurium. Under one scenario modeled in the report, tellurium supply would need to increase 50% more than its projected 2015 total in order to meet expected demand.
Indium and gallium have also experienced increased popularity in non-PV manufacturing uses, such as semiconductor applications, flat-panel displays, and coatings for smartphones and tablet computers. The DOE forecasts that as a result, supplies may run short by 2015 unless production of these materials is increased – or non-PV demand lessens.
Of the two metals, gallium poses more cause for concern, as the DOE has adjusted its assumptions of future gallium use under CIGS manufacturers’ expected manufacturing modifications.
“These higher estimates [of gallium requirements] are driven largely by the assumption that gallium will increasingly be substituted for indium in CIGS composition,” the DOE explains. This change points to the benefits of reducing material intensity in other aspects of PV manufacturing, such as reducing cell thickness and improving processing efficiency.
Overall, indium, gallium and tellurium all receive moderate scores (2 or 3 on a scale of 1 to 4) from the DOE with regard to both their importance to clean energy and short- and medium-term supply risk.
In order to help mitigate possible supply disruptions that could threaten the manufacturing and deployment of PV, as well as other types of clean energy, the agency has developed a three-pronged approach.
“First, diversified global supply chains are essential,” the DOE stresses in the report. “To manage supply risk, multiple sources of materials are required. This means taking steps to facilitate extraction, processing and manufacturing here in the United States, as well as encouraging other nations to expedite alternative supplies.”
The second strategy relies on developing alternatives to materials whose supply may be constrained. For PV, one DOE research program focuses on advancements in thin-film formulations such as copper-zinc-tin and sulfide-selenide. Another initiative funds research and development into PV inks based on earth-abundant materials such as zinc, sulfur and copper.
“Several projects also seek to use iron pyrite – also known as fool’s gold – to develop prototype solar cells,” the DOE notes in the report. “Pyrite is non-toxic, inexpensive, and is the most abundant sulfide mineral in the Earth’s crust.”
Finally, improving recycling and reuse mechanisms can reduce demand for new materials, the DOE says, adding that these strategies also can help improve the sustainability of manufacturing processes.
Source: http://www.aer-online.com/e107_plugins/content/content.php?content.9408
Photo: Enbridge Inc.’s 5 MW Tilbury solar project in Ontario uses First Solar’s cadmium telluride thin-film modules. Photo credit: Enbridge
Supply Threats Persist For Thin-Film Solar Materials Due To Competition
Cadmium Telluride Thin-Film Modules
One year ago, a report from the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) on the global supply of essential PV module materials predicted possible disruptions for thin-film manufacturing.
The availability of indium, gallium and tellurium was examined in the context of current and future production needs, and the DOE found cause for concern. Indium and tellurium were pegged as especially vulnerable to supply tightness and price volatility, according to both the report and several market analysts at the time.
Now, the DOE has released the latest edition of its Critical Materials Strategy. Have the worries over thin-film PV materials supply eased? According to the DOE, the general supply-demand picture for indium, gallium and tellurium has “improved slightly,” but the situation is not entirely reassuring. The three metals are still highlighted (alongside neodymium and dysprosium) as clean-energy materials that face a “significant risk of supply chain bottlenecks in the next two decades.”
The report attributes the slight improvement primarily to decreased demand for the three thin-film materials: Although PV deployment is expected to grow, the requirements of the materials per module are expected to shrink.
For copper indium gallium diselenide (CIGS) modules, manufacturers are shifting to compositions with higher proportions of gallium and lower concentrations of indium, the DOE says. The result is a “partial trade-off in the potential for supply risk between the two elements.” At the same time, CIGS’ market share assumption has been reduced under the DOE’s new calculations, lowering projected demand for both indium and gallium.
Cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin-film modules currently account for approximately 10% of the PV market, according to the report. Declining silicon prices may threaten this slice of the market, but high tellurium costs and the increasing need for CdTe manufacturers to compete for supply with non-PV companies requiring tellurium continue to cause supply headaches.
“The cost of tellurium is a critical issue for CdTe solar cell makers, and the industry is working to lower material use and increasing recovery of new scrap to reduce reliance on primary tellurium,” the DOE says in the report.
Although short-term supply of tellurium appears adequate, future capacity increases may be insufficient to supply both CdTe manufacturing and the multitude of other manufacturing sectors that use tellurium. Under one scenario modeled in the report, tellurium supply would need to increase 50% more than its projected 2015 total in order to meet expected demand.
Indium and gallium have also experienced increased popularity in non-PV manufacturing uses, such as semiconductor applications, flat-panel displays, and coatings for smartphones and tablet computers. The DOE forecasts that as a result, supplies may run short by 2015 unless production of these materials is increased – or non-PV demand lessens.
Of the two metals, gallium poses more cause for concern, as the DOE has adjusted its assumptions of future gallium use under CIGS manufacturers’ expected manufacturing modifications.
“These higher estimates [of gallium requirements] are driven largely by the assumption that gallium will increasingly be substituted for indium in CIGS composition,” the DOE explains. This change points to the benefits of reducing material intensity in other aspects of PV manufacturing, such as reducing cell thickness and improving processing efficiency.
Overall, indium, gallium and tellurium all receive moderate scores (2 or 3 on a scale of 1 to 4) from the DOE with regard to both their importance to clean energy and short- and medium-term supply risk.
In order to help mitigate possible supply disruptions that could threaten the manufacturing and deployment of PV, as well as other types of clean energy, the agency has developed a three-pronged approach.
“First, diversified global supply chains are essential,” the DOE stresses in the report. “To manage supply risk, multiple sources of materials are required. This means taking steps to facilitate extraction, processing and manufacturing here in the United States, as well as encouraging other nations to expedite alternative supplies.”
The second strategy relies on developing alternatives to materials whose supply may be constrained. For PV, one DOE research program focuses on advancements in thin-film formulations such as copper-zinc-tin and sulfide-selenide. Another initiative funds research and development into PV inks based on earth-abundant materials such as zinc, sulfur and copper.
“Several projects also seek to use iron pyrite – also known as fool’s gold – to develop prototype solar cells,” the DOE notes in the report. “Pyrite is non-toxic, inexpensive, and is the most abundant sulfide mineral in the Earth’s crust.”
Finally, improving recycling and reuse mechanisms can reduce demand for new materials, the DOE says, adding that these strategies also can help improve the sustainability of manufacturing processes.
By: SI Staff
Source: http://www.aer-online.com/e107_plugins/content/content.php?content.9408
Photo: Enbridge Inc.’s 5 MW Tilbury solar project in Ontario uses First Solar’s cadmium telluride thin-film modules. Photo credit: Enbridge
DOE report finds 5 clean-energy related REEs at risk in short-term
Rare Earth Elements
The substantial capex required for the development of a rare earths mine, compounded by major miners’ lack of interest in mining rare earths, may spell trouble in meeting future demand.
A report issued Thursday by the U.S. Department of Energy has determined supplies of five rare earths metals-dysprosium, terbium, europium, neodymium and yttrium-are at risk in the short term, potentially impacting clean energy technology deployment in the years ahead.
The 2011 Critical Minerals Strategy examined 16 elements for criticality in wind turbines, electric vehicles, photovoltaic cells and fluorescent lighting. Of those 16 elements, eight are rare earth metals valued for their unique magnetic, optical and catalytic properties.
Five rare earth elements used in magnets for wind turbines and electric vehicles or phosphors for energy-efficient lighting were found to be critical in the short term (present-2015).
Between the short term and the medium term (2015-2025), the importance to clean energy and supply risk shift for some materials.
Other elements-cerium, indium, lanthanum and tellurium-were found to be near-critical.
DOE’s strategy to address critical materials challenges rests on three pillars. To manage supply risk, multiple sources of materials are required. “This means taking steps to facilitate extraction, processing and manufacturing here in the United States, as well as encouraging other nations to expedite alternative supplies,” the report said. “In all cases, extraction, separation and processing should be done in an environmentally sound manner.
“Second, substitutes must be developed,” the report cautioned. “Research leading to material and technology substitutes will improve flexibility and help meet the materials needs of the clean energy economy.”
“Third, recycling, reuse and more efficient use could significantly lower world demand for newly extracted materials,” the DOE advised. “Research into recycling processes coupled with well-designed policies will help make recycling economically viable over time.”
The report also contains three in-depth technology analyses with the following conclusions:
· “Rare earth elements play an important role in petroleum refining, but the sector’s vulnerability to rare earth supply disruptions is limited.”
· “Manufacturers of wind power and electric vehicle technologies are pursuing strategies to respond to possible rare earth shortages. Permanent magnets containing neodymium and dysprosium are used in wind turbine generators and electric vehicle motors. Manufacturers of both technologies are current making decisions on future system design, trading off the performance benefits of neodymium and dysprosium against vulnerability to potential supply shortages.”
· “As lighting energy efficiency standards are implemented globally, heavy rare earths used in lightning phosphors may be in short supply. In the United States, two sets of lighting energy efficiency standards coming into effect in 2012 will likely lead to an increase in demand for fluorescent lamps containing phosphors made with europium, terbium and yttrium.”
In their analysis, DOE found R&D plays a central role in developing substitutes for rare earth elements. In the past year, the agency has increased its investment in magnet, motor and generator substitutes.
“The demand for key materials has also been driven largely by government regulation and policy,” the report observed.
“Issues surrounding critical materials touch on the missions of many federal agencies,” said the DOE. Since March 2010, an interagency working group on critical materials and their supply chains convened by the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy has been examining market risks, critical materials in emerging high-growth industries and opportunities for long term-benefit through innovation.
The report also found that, in general, mining and metal processing expertise “has gradually declined in countries of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, although the need to develop and retain such expertise has received increasing attention in recent years.”
While the number of REO-producing firms located outside of China is small, the proliferation of new rare earth companies “could help ease market concentrations in the years ahead,” the DOE observed. However, “one of the most significant requirements in the rare earth supply chain is the amount of capital needed to commence mining and refining operations…”
“The extraction and, in particular, the processing of rare earth ore is extremely capital intensive, ranging from $100 million to $1 billion of capital expenditure depending on the location and production capacity,” the report noted. “Bringing a greenfield mine to production likely costs in excess of $1 billion.”
“The estimated financial investment needed just to prove the resource (e.g., exploration and drilling) can be up to $50 million,” said the DOE. “The up-front cost of production capacity can range from $15,000 to $40,000 per tonne of annual capacity.’
“Unlike other commodities, rare earth mining generally does not appeal to the major global mining firms because it is a relatively small market (about $3 billion in 2010) and is often less predictable and less transparent than other commodity markets,” the report said.
“Additionally, the processing of rare earth elements into high-purity REOs is fundamentally a chemical process that is often highly specialized to meet the needs of particular customers,” the study noted. “It requires unique mineral processing know-how that is not transferrable to other mining operations. These factors reduce the appeal of rare earths production to the major mining companies, leaving the field mostly to junior miners.”
The report observed that smaller mining companies face a number of challenges, including being less well-capitalized than the majors and may find it difficult to raise money from traditional market. Certain macroeconomic conditions, particularly tight credit and volatile equity markets, can contribute to these difficulties.
“Successful public flotations require fairly advanced operations with proven resources, a bankable feasibility study and often customer contracts or off-take agreements in place that ensure some level of revenue,” the agency said. The DOE noted that Molycorp and Lynas Corporation have the largest capitalizations, “reflecting in part their expansion of large established mines.”
By: Dorothy Kosich
Source: http://www.mineweb.com/mineweb/view/mineweb/en/page72102?oid=142195&sn=Detail&pid=102055
Thermoelectrics: Roughing it
(Nanowerk News) Thermoelectric materials convert a temperature gradient into a voltage. Most thermoelectrics, however, are too inefficient for widespread practical application. Still, the possibility that these materials could usefully harness heat waste, such as that generated by combustion engines, makes improving their efficiency an important pursuit in materials science. A team of scientists led by Wooyoung Lee at Yonsei University in Korea has now shown that interface roughening may be an effective way to enhance the thermoelectric properties of core/shell nanowires (“Reduction of Lattice Thermal Conductivity in Single Bi-Te Core/Shell Nanowires with Rough Interface”).
In the ideal thermoelectric, the charge conducts easily from a hot point to a cold one, while heat conduction is low. The ratio between these quantities is contained in the thermoelectric ‘figure of merit’.
Nanowires with a bismuth core encased in a tellurium shell have improved thermoelectric properties when the interface between the core and shell is roughened by impeding the flow of phonons, but not electrons.
As both electrons and vibrational waves in the lattice, known as phonons, contribute to a material’s thermal conductivity, Lee and his colleagues attempted to raise a material’s thermoelectric figure of merit by suppressing the conductivity of phonons without impairing electrical conductivity. This can be achieved by adding defects or nanostructuring a material to make it smaller than the phonon mean-free path — the typical distance a phonon travels before it scatters.
Lee and his team combined both of these tricks to reduce the thermal conductivity of a promising thermoelectric material consisting of a bismuth nanowire core coated with a tellurium shell. The team synthesized the wires by cooling just-prepared bismuth nanowires with liquid nitrogen and then coating them with tellurium using a sputtering technique, giving a core/shell structure with a smooth interface. They also prepared the wires without the cooling step, resulting in a rough interface.
After examining a series of the core/shell nanowires of 160–460 nm in diameter in both the smooth and rough versions, the researchers noticed two trends: the narrowest wires had the lowest thermal conductivity, and wires with rough interfaces had lower thermal conductivity than those with smooth interfaces — in some cases by as much as a factor of five.
According to Lee, roughening of the interface between the bismuth and tellurium reduces the thermal conductivity of phonons more significantly than electron thermal conductivity (see image). “The overall effect is to increase the thermoelectric figure of merit,” says Lee.
Source: Tokyo Institute of Technology
http://www.nanowerk.com/news/newsid=23457.php
New JRC report highlights risk of rare earth metal shortages
- Rare Earth Elements
A new JRC report revealed that five metals, essential for manufacturing low-carbon technologies, show a high risk of shortage. Reasons for this lie in Europe’s dependency on imports, increasing global demand, supply concentration and geopolitical issues.
Scientists at the JRC’s Institute for Energy and Transport (IET) examined the use of raw materials, especially metals, in the six priority low-carbon energy technologies of the Commission’s SET-Plan: nuclear, solar, wind, bio-energy, carbon capture and storage and electricity grids.
The findings were that a large-scale deployment of solar energy technologies, for example, will require half the current world supply of tellurium and 25% of the supply of indium. At the same time, the envisaged deployment of wind energy technology in Europe will require large amounts of neodymium and dysprosium for permanent magnet generators.
The report considers possible strategies to avoid or mitigate shortage of these metals, for instance through recycling, increasing Europe’s own production of such metals and by developing of alternative technologies that rely on more common materials.
In the near future the JRC will conduct similar studies on other energy technologies that also use critical metals, such as electric vehicles, electricity storage, lighting and fuel cells.
By: Peggy Greb
Source: http://ec.europa.eu/dgs/jrc/index.cfm?id=1410&obj_id=14150&dt_code=NWS&lang=en
Rare Earth Elements are not the same as Rare Industrial Metals
Rare Earth Elements
Randy Hilarski has also released a video on this article that can be watched by clicking here.
I read articles from other writers who often refer to Rare Industrial or Technical Metals as Rare Earth elements. I would like to take some time and clear up the issue. I deal with RIM’s and REE´s on a daily basis. The two might both be considered metals but that is where the similarities end.
First we have REE´s or Rare Earth Elements. These metals consist of 17 metals, the Lanthanides plus Scandium and Yttrium on the periodic table of the elements. These metals are in a powder form, making them difficult to assay and store. One important factor that is often mentioned is that they are not rare. This is very true, but finding REE´s in large deposits is difficult.
In the mining sector REE mines are standalone mines, that focus on the mining and refining of REE´s exclusively. Currently around 97% of all REE´s are mined and refined in China. Historically REE mining and refining has been a dirty business, which has affected the environment around the mines. The elements Thorium and Uranium are often found along with the REE´s in the deposits causing the slurry to be slightly radioactive when processed. The use of highly toxic acids during the processing can also have serious environmental impact. Many companies are trying to open REE mines but they are meeting headwinds, as nations and people do not want these mines in their backyard.
Over the last few years China has dramatically cut its export of REE´s. This and the increased need for REE´s have caused a meteoric rise in the value of these metals. The one area that very few people talk about is the role of the media combined with speculators in raising the value of REE ETF´s in particular. For the last couple years REE´s were the rock stars of the metals. The news has calmed as of late, but the supply and demand factors that caused the metals to soar are still in place. Recently China closed it BaoTao mine until REE prices stabilize.
Rare Earth Metal - Indium
Rare Industrial Metals, RIM´s or Technical metals are another group entirely. The RIM´s are made up of metals used in over 80% of all products we use on a daily basis. Without these metals you would not have the world of the 21st century with our mobile phones, hybrid cars, flat screen TV´s, highly efficient solar energy and computers. Some of these metals include Indium, Tellurium, Gallium, Tantalum and Hafnium. These metals really are rare compared to the Rare Earth Metals which causes a great deal of confusion. These metals are in a metallic form, stable and easy to store and ship.
RIM´s are mined as a by-product of base or common metal mining. For example Tellurium is a by-product of Copper mining and Gallium is a by-product of Aluminum and Zinc mining. The mining of the RIM´s currently are for the most part at the mercy of the markets for the base or common metal mining. If the Copper mines of the world decide to cut production due to Copper losing value, this will have a huge impact on the amount of Tellurium that can be refined. Up until now, because of the previous small size of the RIM market, many companies do not feel the need to invest money into better technology to mine and refine these metals. The RIM´s would have to be valued much higher to gain the attention of the mining industry.
When China cut exports of REE´s they also cut exports of RIM´s. This put pressure on the value of these metals. RIM´s have increased in value, but nowhere near the meteoric rise of the REE´s. Most of the metals increased in value around 47% in 2010 and 25% so far in 2011. There is still a lot of room for growth in the value of these metals (not based on speculation like REE´s) as demand is exceeding supply now and in the future.
For Example, when REE´s and the stock market recently fell sharply the RIM´s came down slightly in value but have held their own extremely well. On a further note, according to Knut Andersen of Swiss Metal Assets, ¨Even though prices of the Rare Industrial Metals continue to go up in value, consumers will eventually only see a very small increase in the price of the end products, because there is so little of each metal used to produce these products. Also if the people can´t afford a smartphone they will still buy less expensive phones that still use the same Rare Industrial Metals¨.
The need for RIM´s has risen sharply over the years and will continue to grow at astronomical rates. China, India, South America and the whole of Africa with hundreds of millions of new consumers are now buying and using computers and mobile phones to name just a few products.
The future is bright for the technologies and the Rare Industrial Metals that make them work and for anyone who participates in stockpiling these metals now to meet future increased demand.
By: Randy Hilarski – The Rare Metals Guy
EU Feels Pressure of China’s Rare Earths Supply Pinch
Rare Earth Elements critical to 80% of Modern Industry
The pressure to use low-carbon technologies less damaging to the environment is hitting hard on industries using rare earths in the European Union.
European Commission’s Vice President Antonio Tajani raised the concern regarding the steady supply of rare earths, which are primary components to solar panels and energy-efficient light bulbs.
Rare earth metals are also used in common electronic gadgets like iPhones and iPads.
The site www.theengineer.co.uk cited a report by Tajani’s early this week that a separate plan must be conceived to secure the supply of rare earths and allow the smooth execution of the EC’s Strategic Energy Technology Plan.
“European companies need to have a secure, affordable and undistorted access to raw materials. This is essential for industrial competitiveness, innovation and jobs in Europe,” Tajani’s report said.
The EC has been conducting a study of the rare earths metals in pursuing the low-carbon technology indicated in the plan, which includes nuclear, solar, wind, bio-energy, carbon capture and storage and updating electricity grids.
The study, “Critical Metals in Strategic Energy Technologies,” reveals that five metals commonly used in these technologies (neodymium, dysprosium, indium, tellurium and gallium) show a high risk of shortage, according to www.rareearthassociation.org.
China’s clamping down on rare earth production has led other nations to consider their options in securing their steady supply of the metals.
The United States has been considering building its own stockpile, which some industry specialists said could also distort world prices and the supplies.
China currently holds close to 95 percent of current supply and commanded a premium price raging from 100,000 to 300,000 renminbi early this month.
To be less reliant on China for rare earths, companies like Molycorp, Lynas Corp., Alkane Resources, Globe Metals Mining, among other mining firms have embarked on mineral exploration projects to uncover more of the coveted rare earths.
Recently, the U.S. Congress considered a strategic stock pile of rare earths as they are used in a variety of applications including global positioning and guidance and control systems, according to a Congressional Research Service report.
By Christine Gaylican
Source: http://au.ibtimes.com/articles/249401/20111115/eu-feels-pressure-rare-earths-supply-pinch.htm
JRC Report Reveals Five Rare Earth Metals Show High Scarcity Risk
Rare Earth Metal - Indium
The study titled ‘Critical Metals in Strategic Energy Technologies’ conducted by the Joint Research Centre (JRC) has revealed that five rare earth metals, which include gallium, tellurium, indium, dysprosium and neodymium, used in the production of low-carbon technologies are at risk of scarcity.
According to the study, the causes of scarcity of these metals are geopolitical problems, supply concentration, rising global demand and Europe’s reliance on imports. Moreover, these materials cannot be replaceable or recyclable easily. This study has been conducted subsequent to the publication of a European Commission report on essential raw materials at European Union in 2010.
The study suggests plans to eliminate scarcity so as to implement the Strategic Energy Technology (SET) Plan of the European Commission to gear up the development and implementation of low-carbon technologies. The study covers the utilization of raw materials, primarily metals, in the six major low-carbon technologies of the SET Plan such as electricity grids, carbon capture and storage, bio-energy, wind, solar and nuclear.
For instance, a large-scale solar power installation will need 25% of the current global supply of indium and 50% of the supply of tellurium, while a large wind power farm will need significant quantities of dysprosium and neodymium for its permanent magnet generators. China supplies almost all these metals to Europe.
The study recommends possible strategies to eliminate or reduce scarcity of these materials through replacing with other less essential materials, implementing alternative technologies and augmenting primary production of Europe by opening dormant or new mines and promoting reutilization and recycling. The JRC will conduct similar studies in the coming years on other energy technologies utilizing critical metals including fuel cells, lighting, electricity storage, and electric vehicles.
Source: http://www.jrc.ec.europa.eu
Rare metals supply a low-carbon question
Rare Earth Metal - Indium
BRUSSELS, Nov. 10 (UPI) — A world shortage of rare earth metals could hamper deployment of low-carbon energy technologies, a European Commission report says.
Many metals essential for manufacturing low-carbon technologies show a high risk of shortage, scientists at the Commission’s Joint Research Center said, because of Europe’s dependency on imports, increasing global demand, supply concentration and geopolitical issues.
The center analyzed the use of rare earth metals in the six priority low-carbon energy technologies in the Commission’s low carbon plans: nuclear, solar, wind, bio-energy, carbon capture and storage and electricity grids.
There is a risk of shortages of five metals commonly used in these technologies — neodymium, dysprosium, indium, tellurium and gallium — as virtually the whole European supply of a number of these metals comes from China, a center release said Thursday.
“European companies need to have a secure, affordable and undistorted access to raw materials,” Antonio Tajani, Commissioner for Industry and Entrepreneurship, said.
“This is essential for industrial competitiveness, innovation and jobs in Europe.”
Source: http://www.upi.com/
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